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Much more than any software!!! The structure of standards must be modular Thus a STANDARD and MODULAR set of communications rules must be defined. B6u6uThe reference Model &A  standard framework for describing standard approached for delivering data over a network. Placed in different locations Want to pass data of some type, from one to another. Want this to be done good/best/ASAP. Want to do it with certain minimal quality requirements.  The method: A layered Model  Each layer is responsible for certain tasks Each layer goes across the network Each software piece talks  horizontally with its peer piece (on another hardware) Each software piece talks upward and downward to its parent and sibling pieces (on same hardware). !The principle of a layered model "" The layers : Layer 1 - Physical Deals with the physics of the media Attaches to the  iron and understands the  iron (cooper, fiber, ether& ). 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Introduces network mechanisms : Routing, addressing Uses the link layer to transfer across a link. <'#7Network Layer (layer 3): a reliable packet network pipe88 ($!A view from above (network layer))&InterNetwork Layer (3.5) 8Arranges the delivery of a packet across many networks <86*%Internet Layer (3.5)  +(?Transport Layer (layer 4): a reliable communications end to end@@( ,'Issues at Transport layerlReliable communications: Guarantees that a packet does arrive at destination (if does not arrive  requires resend). Acking Numbering Flow Control: Can you send at your will? z]--- -] ,v5-)Issues at Transport layerCan you send at your will? If destination is slow: destination will have its buffer full and performance degradation. Efficiency be careful If route is slow: sending over-traffic will just congest the network. Politeness slow down. d---gk.*Principles of Flow controlnUse acks for each packet (receiver sends ack for each packet) Sender uses a WINDOW (cannot send more than a  window full of packets). If j did not arrive can send at most j-1+W. Advanced windows: make the window size depends on speed of line. If things go OK  increase W. If things go slow  decrease W. `-Z@-ZZ-Z@,  /+Application Layer (5) 3Use the transport layer to ship the application. 22--40, Internet  Internet Layer: Internet Protocol (IP) Takes care of passing a packet across the network to the destination (routing across networks). Transport Control Protocol (TCP): Layer 5 protocol. Above IP. Creates a reliable communications path end to end. (-Za-Z4-Z@-ZZ-Z(a4@1- Internet  UDP (Unspecified Data Protocol) Parallel to TCP (that is, above IP) Good news: Provides no flow control mechanism!. Bad News: Provides no guaranteed delivery! User s responsibility for the packets. Network does not control the flow of packets. 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